the first being: “If compulsion holds true, he is coerced.” It has already been established that if “compulsion” means compulsion in its familiar sense—one person forcing another to do what he does not want—then such compulsion is not established. If, however, it means that Allah creates a person’s will, then even if this compulsion is established, the person is not coerced.

The second premise is his statement: “In your view, the coerced is excused.” This is not so. Rather, those subjected to coercion fall into two categories. One consists of those who are rightfully coerced; they are not excused. Allah Most High never coerces anyone except rightfully, whether coercion is considered in terms of His creation and decree or His law and command. The only coerced person who is excused is someone wronged by being coerced without right. Allah Most High does not wrong anyone even by an atom’s weight. Rather, He is the Judge, the Just, who upholds justice, as He Most High says:

“Allah bears witness that there is no deity worthy of worship except Him, as do the angels and those endowed with knowledge; He upholds justice. There is no deity worthy of worship except Him, the Almighty, the All-Wise.”

Muslims and others agree that Allah is far removed from injustice. People have disagreed, however, over the meaning of the “injustice” from which the Lord must be declared free. The Qadariyyah, among the Muʿtazilah and others, regarded the “injustice” from which the Creator is declared free as being of the same kind as the “injustice” forbidden to created beings. They likened Allah Most High to His creation and thus imposed upon Him obligations of the same kind as those incumbent upon