upon which they build all other branches of knowledge. Thus, when discussing the foundations of knowledge and speculative theology, they give such examples as: one is half of two; a body cannot occupy two places; and two opposites—such as blackness and whiteness—cannot coexist. There is agreement, then, on these two disciplines.

As for ethical matters, such as regarding knowledge, justice, chastity, and courage as good, most philosophers and speculative theologians count these among the foundations, though among the general foundations. Some, however, do not regard them as foundations, but as derivative matters requiring proof. This is the position of most speculative theologians who champion the sunnah in their interpretation of divine decree. Thus, the knowledge they established as foundational and agreed upon was of little benefit and scant value: it concerned matters of the lower realm.

When they ascend from these premises and proofs to matters of the higher realm, they follow two paths.

As for speculative theologians who follow prophetic teachings, their aim is generally only to establish the existence of the Maker of the world and the attributes through which prophethood is established according to their method. Once they have established prophethood, they receive through it the teachings known through revelation: the Book, the sunnah, consensus, and what is derived from these.

As for the philosophers, they generally explore natural matters and their implications at length, then ascend to the celestial spheres and their conditions. Those among them concerned with divine matters then ascend to the Necessary