as a state of mind among many of those engaged in jurisprudence and speculative theology. This became a doctrinal belief among the Muʿtazilah and the later Shīʿah, while some earlier groups in Basra and Syria were afflicted with aspects of it. Some people may also be afflicted with it as a state of mind rather than a belief, when their reverence for divine commands and prohibitions predominates without due regard for divine decree and predestination.

Because these two groups are mutually opposed, you find the Muʿtazilah furthest removed from the Sufis. They incline towards the Jews and recoil from the Christians, equating affirmation of Allah’s attributes with the Christian doctrine of the divine Persons. Hence they are more given to censuring Christians, as al-Jāhiz and others do, whereas the former group inclines more towards Christians. Thus these concern themselves with letters and innovated discourse, just as the former concern themselves with sounds and innovated practices—a division resembling that between Jews and Christians. Most Jews are Qadariyyah in this respect: they adhere to a religious law but turn away from the reality of divine decree.

Thus you find those devoted to letters and innovated discourse, such as the Muʿtazilah, declaring their own way obligatory and every other way forbidden. They believe that severe punishment will befall anyone who opposes it. They even maintain that sinners among the adherents of religious communities will remain in Hell forever, and declare those groups within the Muslim community that depart from their way to be disbelievers. This severity, these burdens and shackles, resemble the religion of the Jews.

By contrast, you find those devoted to sound and innovated practices declaring nothing obligatory or forbidden, but merely recommending or discouraging. They exalt their way, proclaim its superiority, and encourage others to follow it, until they elevate it