the things within His power, and other matters discussed in detail in their proper place. Circular dependence is of “two kinds”: circular dependence involving priority is impossible. This means that one thing cannot exist until after another, while the other cannot exist until after the first. This is circular dependence among causes. As for circular dependence involving coexistence and concomitance—where one thing exists only together with another, and the other exists only together with the first—this concerns conditions and similar things that are mutually relative or mutually entailing. Circular dependence of this kind is possible.

These are the main outlines of the answers people have given to this question. They comprise several positions:

The first is the position of those who hold that neither His acts nor His rulings are based on reasons.

The second is the position of those who explain them by reference to things distinct and separate from Him, among the effects He brings into being.

The third is the position of those who explain them by reference to beginningless things subsisting in Him.

The fourth is the position of those who explain them by reference to things subsisting in Him and connected with His power and will, but who hold that their kind has a beginning.

The fifth is the position of those who explain them by reference to things connected with His will and power. If the act that gives rise to wisdom belongs to a kind that has a beginning, then the wisdom is likewise. If, however, it is supposed that speech or action connected with His will subsists in Him, and that this has always been so, then the wisdom is likewise. Thus, the kind is beginningless, even though its individual instances come into being.

The question can also be answered through an exhaustive division, as follows:

There is no doubt that Allah, Mighty and Majestic, brings into being effects that did not previously exist. The possibilities are that newly occurring acts must have a beginning, and that they may extend without limit into the past, just as they extend without limit into