such things. Thus, this “one” that they have conceived in their minds has no existence in external reality. This has been explained at length elsewhere. The conceptual “one” affirmed by the philosophers—such as existence stripped of attributes, immaterial intellects, the universals from which they claim species are composed, conceptual matter and form, and similar things—has no existence in external reality. Such things exist only in minds, not as concrete entities. They are even further removed from existence than the indivisible atom affirmed by some speculative theologians. This “one” has no reality outside the mind, and neither does that atom, as has been explained in its proper place.

The point here is that if “causal efficacy” means the presence of a condition for an event, or of a causal means whose production of the event depends upon another causal means and the absence of impediments—all of which Allah Most High creates—then this is true. In this sense, the servant’s capacity does indeed have causal efficacy in bringing about what it enables. But if “causal efficacy” means that the agent independently produces the effect, with neither a helper sharing in its production nor an obstacle preventing it, then nothing created has causal efficacy. Rather, Allah alone is the Creator of everything, without partner or equal. Whatever Allah wills occurs, and whatever He does not will does not occur.

“Whatever mercy Allah opens up for people, none can withhold; and whatever He withholds, none can release after Him.”

“Say, ‘Call upon those whom you claim to be gods besides Allah. They do not possess even an atom’s weight in the heavens or on earth, nor do they have any share in either, nor does He have any helper from among them.’”

“Intercession is of no avail with Him except for those He permits.”

“Say, ‘Have you considered those you invoke besides Allah? If Allah intended harm for me, could they remove His harm? Or if He intended mercy for me, would they