souls, as held by a group of Sabians and philosophers. This is the most unsound of these views. Others say that it is created, and that He created it separate from Himself, as held by the Jahmiyyah, Najjāriyyah and Mu‘tazilah. Others say that it is an eternal meaning subsisting in the Divine Essence, as held by Ibn Kullāb and al-Ash‘arī. Others say that it consists of letters and sounds, as held by Ibn Sālim and a group of others. Still others say that He began to speak after not having spoken, as held by Ibn Karrām and a group of others.

The correct view among these is that of the early generations and the imams, whose statements I have presented at length elsewhere.

When the Inquisition arose, Ahl al-Sunnah maintained that Allah’s speech is uncreated, whereas the “Jahmiyyah,” including the Mu‘tazilah and others, maintained that it is created. Abū Muhammad ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sa‘īd ibn Kullāb al-Qattān was a man of merit and learning. He used his knowledge to refute the Jahmiyyah and Mu‘tazilah who denied the divine attributes, and explained that Allah Himself is above the Throne, discussing this at length. Yet he did not entirely free himself from the specious argument of the Jahmiyyah. Rather, he supposed that the Lord cannot be characterized by acts of choice dependent on His power and will. Thus, He does not speak by His will and power, nor does He come to love a servant and be pleased with him after his faith and obedience, or become angry and displeased with him after his disbelief and disobedience. Rather, He loves and is pleased with those whom He knows will die as believers, or is angry and displeased with those whom He knows will die as unbelievers. Nor does He utter one statement after another.

Yet Allah, exalted is He, has said:

“Indeed, the likeness of Jesus in the sight of Allah is that of Adam. He created him from dust, then said to him, ‘Be,’ and he was.”

And He, exalted is He, has said:

“Say, ‘If you love Allah, then follow me; Allah will love you.’”

And He, exalted is He, has said:

“So when they provoked Our anger, We exacted retribution from them.”

And He, exalted is He, has said:

“That is because they followed what angered Allah and disliked what pleased Him, so He rendered their deeds worthless.”