and his aim was to turn away from a disputed expression to a meaning whose truth was beyond doubt. Hammād ibn Abī Sulaymān and his followers denied that faith varies in degree, that deeds form part of it, and that one may qualify one’s profession of faith. These belonged to the Murji’ah among the jurists. As for Ibrāhīm al-Nakha‘ī—the leading scholar of Kufa and teacher of Hammād ibn Abī Sulaymān—and others like him, together with his predecessors among the companions of Ibn Mas‘ūd, such as ‘Alqamah and al-Aswad, they were among the staunchest opponents of the Murji’ah and would qualify their professions of faith. Hammād ibn Abī Sulaymān, however, departed from his predecessors; others followed him, and various groups among the people of Kufa and subsequent generations adopted this position.

The “early generations and the imams” strongly denounced these people, declared them innovators, and spoke sternly against them. Yet I know of none of them who declared them unbelievers. Rather, they agreed that these people were not to be declared unbelievers on this account. Ahmad and other imams expressly stated that these Murji’ah were not to be declared unbelievers. Anyone who attributes to Ahmad or another imam a declaration that these people were unbelievers, or places them among those innovators whose unbelief is disputed, has made a grave error.

What is reliably transmitted from Ahmad and other such imams is the declaration of unbelief concerning the Jahmiyyah, the Mushabbihah—those who liken Allah to His creation—and others like them. Ahmad did not declare the “Khawārij” unbelievers, nor the “Qadariyyah” who affirmed Allah’s knowledge while denying that He creates human actions and that His will encompasses all things. However, two positions have been reported from him concerning whether they are to be declared unbelievers. As for the “Murji’ah,” his position that they are not to be declared unbelievers is consistent. Moreover, Ahmad did not declare particular individuals among the Jahmiyyah unbelievers; nor did he declare everyone he called a Jahmī an unbeliever, nor everyone who agreed with the Jahmiyyah in