and likewise, lineage and inheritance depend on its complete form, whereas the prohibition of marriage arises from even the slightest cause, including breastfeeding. Similarly, anything that has a beginning and a complete form may sometimes be denied because its complete form is absent, and sometimes affirmed because its initial form is present.

Thus, the word “men” encompasses males, even young children, in such words of Allah as:

“If they are siblings, both men and women, the male shall have the share of two females.”

But it does not encompass young children in such words of His as:

“And the oppressed among men, women, and children who say, ‘Our Lord, take us out of this town whose people are oppressors.’”

Emigration and jihad are activities undertaken by those capable of them. Had He mentioned only oppressed men, it might have been thought that children were not included, since they are not among those suited to undertake these activities and are weak. He therefore mentioned them by their particular designation to clarify their excuse for not emigrating and the obligation of jihad.

Likewise, faith has a beginning and a complete form, as well as outward and inward aspects. When worldly rulings concerning rights and prescribed punishments—such as the protection of life and property, inheritance, and worldly penalties—are attached to faith, they are attached to its outward manifestation. It cannot be otherwise, since making these rulings depend on the inward reality is impossible. Even if this were sometimes possible, it would be difficult both to ascertain that reality and to act upon it. One cannot know it in a manner that establishes it outwardly, nor can one punish someone whose inward reality one knows.

It was on these two grounds that the Prophet (may Allah bless him and grant him peace) refrained from punishing the hypocrites. Among them were some whom he did not know, as Allah has stated. As for those whom he knew, had he punished any of them, that person’s people would have become angry on his behalf, and people would have said:

“Muhammad kills his companions.”

This would consequently have caused