as far as we know. The majority—including Mālik, al-Shāfi‘ī and Abū Hanīfa—hold that an oath sworn by him is not legally binding, as does one of the two opinions reported from Ahmad. This is the correct view.

The same applies to seeking refuge in created beings or things: refuge is to be sought only in the Creator Most High, His names and His attributes. Thus, among the proofs that the early scholars—including Ahmad and others—adduced to establish that Allah’s speech is uncreated were the words of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace:

“I seek refuge in Allah’s perfect words.”

They said: He sought refuge in them, whereas refuge is not to be sought in anything created.

An authentic hadith reports that he, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said:

“There is no harm in incantations so long as they involve no association of partners with Allah.”

He thus prohibited incantations involving such association, including those in which refuge is sought in the jinn. Allah Most High says:

“And there were men among mankind who sought refuge in men among the jinn, so they increased them in transgression.”

For this reason, the scholars prohibited the incantatory formulas and adjurations involving association of partners with Allah that some people use for those afflicted by possession and others. Indeed, they prohibited all such formulas whose meaning is unknown, for fear that they might involve such association. This is unlike prescribed incantations, which are permissible. Accordingly, one may swear an oath—whether simply swearing or adjuring another—only by Allah, Mighty and Majestic, and may seek refuge only in Allah, Mighty and Majestic.

One who asks Allah by invoking something other than Allah is either adjuring Him or seeking what he asks for through that means—as the three men in the cave sought to draw near to Allah through their deeds, and as one seeks to draw near to Him through the supplications of the prophets and the righteous.