and necessarily belonging to them are divided into those intrinsic to their essence as it exists in external reality, those extrinsic to it but necessarily accompanying the essence, and extrinsic concomitants of existence. They propose three distinctions, all of which are invalid, because this division itself is invalid and has no basis in reality. Indeed, what they classify as intrinsic can be classified as extrinsic, and vice versa, as has been explained at length elsewhere.

Their claim, “If an expression conveys its meaning without a contextual indicator, its usage is literal; if it conveys its meaning only with one, its usage is figurative,” has already been shown to be invalid. No meaningful expression conveys its meaning independently of all contextual indicators, nor does any expression require every contextual indicator.

Among the most familiar examples of figurative usage are “lion,” “donkey,” and “sea,” which they say are borrowed to describe a courageous, dull-witted, or generous person, respectively. Yet these expressions are used only within combinations and constructions, qualified by verbal elements, just as literal expressions are. An example is what Abū Bakr al-Siddīq said concerning Abū Qatāda when someone else claimed the slain man’s spoils:

“No, by Allah! Would he then turn to a lion among Allah’s lions, who fights for Allah and His Messenger, and give you his spoils?”

His words, “turn to a lion among Allah’s lions, who fights for Allah and His Messenger,” describe the man’s strength in fighting in Allah’s cause. He has identified him so precisely as to remove any ambiguity. Similarly, the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said:

“Khālid is indeed a sword among Allah’s swords, which Allah has drawn against the polytheists.”

There are other such examples.

If someone says, “Verbal contextual indicators are established by linguistic convention, and their indication of meaning is literal; circumstantial indicators, however, are figurative,” the reply is:

An expression is never used without qualifications supplied by verbal elements established through linguistic convention. Moreover, the circumstances—those of the speaker and the listener—must be taken into account in all speech.