of later generations, such as al-Rāzī and al-Āmidī, challenged the “first premise” in this very question. Al-Rāzī also challenged the “second premise” in several places in his books. This has been discussed at length elsewhere.

As for their statement, “Through this method we came to know that the world had a beginning, and thereby established the existence of the ‘Maker,’” they are told: Indeed, you have devised a method that accords with neither revelation nor reason. Those knowledgeable about the revealed religion acknowledge that you are innovators, introducing into Islam what does not belong to it. Those who speak with understanding know that reason contradicts your claims, and that what you have presented as proof of the Maker’s existence does not establish His existence; rather, it is an argument for denying the “Maker.” The existence of the “Maker” is a truth, and this truth necessarily invalidates your argument that whatever is never free of temporally occurring events must itself have come into existence.

As for “your method being an innovation,” followed neither by the prophets, nor their followers, nor the early generations of the Muslim community, this is because everyone acquainted with what the Messenger brought—even someone whose knowledge is only moderate and falls short of complete mastery—knows that, in calling people to know the Maker, His oneness, and the truthfulness of His messengers, the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, did not direct them to argue from the existence of accidents: that these accidents come into existence and are inseparable from bodies; that whatever is never free of temporally occurring events must itself have come into existence; and that this follows from the impossibility of a beginningless succession of events.

It is thus known with certainty that the Messenger neither spoke of “this method” nor called people to it. Nor did his Companions speak of it or use it to call people. This establishes something necessarily known from the Messenger’s religion, for the Messenger and those who believe in him hold that Allah can be known