that entails no deficiency in a contingent being must be attributed to Him, and He must be declared free of whatever contradicts it. Thus, we ask:

Is creating certain living beings and their actions that cause their punishment necessarily a deficiency, or does this vary? Moreover, if creating them serves a great wisdom that cannot be realized otherwise, which is more perfect: bringing this about together with that great wisdom, or forfeiting that wisdom? Furthermore, can the intended wisdom be realized without this occurring? Whoever reflects on these matters will realize that he cannot say that creating a living being’s action that causes its punishment is necessarily a deficiency.

“Those who affirm divine decree” may offer another answer, though the majority dispute it. They say:

“That He does whatever He wills and perfects whatever He intends is an attribute of perfection, unlike one who is subject to commands and prohibitions, being commanded to do one thing and forbidden to do another.” They also say: “For anyone other than Him, doing whatever he wills is reprehensible only because of the harm that befalls him; but He, glorified be He, cannot suffer any harm.”

The majority say:

“If we suppose someone who does whatever he wills without any beloved wise purpose relating to himself, or any mercy and beneficence extending to others, then one who acts with wisdom and mercy is more perfect than one who acts without wisdom or mercy.”

They also say:

“If we suppose a willing agent who does not distinguish between what he wills and what another wills, and another willing agent who distinguishes between them, willing what is fitting and proper to will rather than its opposite, then the second is more perfect.”

They also say:

“One who is subject to commands and prohibitions from a superior who commands and forbids is deficient in comparison with one who has no