As for the “Lord of creation,” who is more perfect than every other existent being, He has the greatest right to the attributes of perfection. One who possesses the attributes of perfection is not equal to one who does not. He also points out that inanimate things are ordinarily incapable of possessing these attributes. Whoever holds that the Necessary Existent cannot possess such attributes has therefore placed Him in the same category as the lifeless idols that Allah, Most High, condemned, along with their worshippers. This is why the “esoteric Qarmatians” were among those most deeply engaged in associating partners with Allah and worshipping others besides Him: they did not believe that their god heard, saw, or could benefit them in any way.

Allah, glorified be He, did not mention these passages merely to establish His attributes of perfection. Rather, He mentioned them to show that He alone deserves worship. Thus He established (the two foundations through which monotheism is complete: affirming the attributes of perfection, in refutation of those who deny Allah or His attributes; and explaining that He alone deserves worship—none has the right to be worshipped but Him—in refutation of the polytheists.

Associating partners with Allah is more widespread in the world than denial. Establishing “monotheism,” which excludes associating partners with Allah, does not necessarily invalidate the position of the deniers. Nor does mere affirmation that invalidates the deniers’ position refute the polytheists without a further explanation. The Quran sometimes refutes the deniers, as in its refutation of Pharaoh and others like him. It also refutes the polytheists, and this occurs more frequently, because the Quran is a cure for what is in people’s hearts, and the disease of associating partners with Allah is more prevalent among people than the disease of denial. Moreover, Allah, glorified be He,