of efficient causes,” which is self-evidently invalid, as all rational people agree.

For positing an endless series of causes, none of which acts independently, does not entail the existence of any one of them, of them all, or of their combination. The Originator of existing things must necessarily exist. Thus, if this one were assumed to be perfect, its perfection would come not from itself but from another, and so on. It would follow that none of these things possessed any perfection. Yet assuming the first to be perfect would entail affirming two contradictories together.

If His perfection is intrinsic and does not depend on another, then perfection is intrinsically necessary for Him, and He cannot lack any perfection possible for Him. Rather, whatever perfection is possible for Him is necessary for Him, as the majority of jurists, hadith scholars, Sufis, theologians, philosophers, and others have acknowledged. Indeed, this holds even for the effects He produces: whatever He wills comes to be, and whatever He does not will does not come to be, being impossible either in itself or because of another.

Thus, there is only that which exists necessarily, either in itself or through another, or that which does not exist, either on account of its own nature or on account of another. If the complete cause of a contingent thing is present, it becomes necessary through another; otherwise, it is impossible because of another. What is contingent in itself is therefore either necessary through another or impossible because of another.

Allah, glorified be He, has made clear that He is more entitled to perfection than anyone else, and that no one else equals Him in perfection, in such statements as His saying, Most High:

“Is He who creates like one who does not create? Will you not then take heed?”

He has thus made clear that creating is an attribute of perfection, that one who creates is superior to one who does not create, and that whoever equates the two has committed injustice.

And He, Most High, says:

“Allah sets forth a parable: a slave owned by another, unable to do anything, and one whom We have provided