the case. Rather, in each instance he spoke according to the extent of his knowledge, reflection, and inquiry, expressing what appeared correct to him. He contradicts himself in most of what he says: he establishes something here, then refutes it elsewhere. This is because the rational material he examined—drawn from the practitioners of innovated speculative theology condemned by the early Muslim generations, and from philosophers outside the faith—contains false arguments on both sides. Thus, he supports one group’s position with arguments that establish it, then refutes it elsewhere with arguments that undermine it.

For this reason, he acknowledged toward the end of his life:

“I have reflected upon the methods of speculative theology and the approaches of philosophy, and I have not found them to heal the sick or quench thirst. I have found the most direct path to be the way of the Quran. Concerning affirmation, read:

‘The Most Merciful rose over the Throne.’

‘To Him ascends good speech.’

And concerning negation, read:

‘There is nothing like unto Him.’

‘They do not encompass Him in knowledge.’

Whoever has experienced what I have experienced will know what I have come to know.”

Al-Āmidī, meanwhile, is largely given to perplexity and suspension of judgment concerning most of the major foundational questions. He even raised an objection to his own argument concerning an infinite regress of causes and claimed that he knew no answer to it, while basing his proof of the Creator’s existence on that argument. Thus, in his books he establishes neither the Creator’s existence, nor the world’s coming into existence, nor Allah’s oneness, nor prophethood, nor any of the fundamental principles that one needs to know.

Although al-Rāzī does establish some of these matters, he generally refutes elsewhere what he establishes. Nevertheless, he is more intent on establishing the fundamental principles that one needs to know than