before and after. Universal control therefore cannot be the control described here, which is confined to a particular time as well as to the Throne.

(Seventh: It has not been established that istawā (“rose over”) means istawlā (“took control”) in Arabic. Those who maintain this rely chiefly on the well-known verse:

“Then Bishr rose over Iraq,
Without sword or bloodshed.”

No authentic transmission has established that this is genuine Arabic poetry. Several leading authorities on Arabic rejected it, saying that it was a fabricated verse unknown in the language. It is well known that anyone citing a hadith of the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, as evidence would need to establish its authenticity. How, then, can one cite a verse of poetry whose chain of transmission is unknown and which leading authorities on Arabic have challenged?

A report from al-Khalīl is cited, as related by Abū al-Muzaffar in his book al-Ifsāh (Elucidation): “Al-Khalīl was asked, ‘Have you found istawā used in Arabic to mean istawlā?’ He replied, ‘This is unknown to the Arabs and is not permissible in their language.’” Al-Khalīl was, as is well known, a leading authority on Arabic. Thus, interpreting the word in a sense unknown in the language is invalid.

Eighth: It is reported that a number of authorities on Arabic said that istawā cannot mean istawlā except when referring to someone who was powerless and then prevailed. Yet nothing is beyond the power of Allah, glorified be He, and the Throne never contends with Him. It therefore cannot mean “took control.”

Once this is clear, the poet’s words:

“Then Bishr rose over Iraq”