He went on to say:

“Evidence refuting figurative interpretation is that the Companions and the Successors who came after them understood these reports according to their apparent meaning. They neither attempted to interpret them figuratively nor diverted them from their apparent meaning. Had figurative interpretation been permissible, they would have been the first to adopt it, since it would remove any suggestion of likeness to creation and dispel doubt.”

Abū al-Hasan ‘Alī ibn Ismā‘īl al-Ash‘arī—the theologian whose school of speculative theology bears his name—said in his book on the differences among those who pray and the doctrines of the Muslims, after mentioning the various groups of the Rāfidah, Khārijites, Murji’ah, Mu‘tazilah, and others:

“The overall position of the people of the Sunnah and the people of hadith

“The position of the people of hadith and the people of the Sunnah is to affirm belief in Allah, His angels, His Books, His messengers, and whatever has come from Allah Most High, as well as whatever trustworthy narrators have transmitted from the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. They reject none of this.

“They affirm that Allah is One, Unique, Alone, the One upon whom all depend; there is no deity worthy of worship except Him. He has taken neither a consort nor a child. Muhammad is His servant and Messenger; Paradise is real, and Hell is real; the Hour is coming, beyond any doubt; and Allah will resurrect those in the graves.

“They affirm that Allah is above His Throne, as He said:

‘The Most Merciful rose over the Throne.’

“And that He has two Hands, without specifying how, as He said:

‘What I created with My two Hands.’

“And as He said:

‘Rather, both His Hands are outstretched.’

“And that He has two Eyes, without specifying how, as He said:

‘Sailing under Our Eyes.’

“And that He has a Face, as He said:

‘And the Face of your Lord, full of majesty and honour, will remain.’

“And that it is not to be said that the names of Allah Most High are other than Allah, as the Mu‘tazilah and the Khārijites have said.

“They affirmed that Allah has knowledge, as He said:

‘He sent it down with His knowledge.’

“And as He said: ‘No female conceives, nor