bore a resemblance to the other, for the two desires were of the same kind. Each was raised in rank through the profound repentance by which he attained such love from Allah and such rejoicing on His part. The accounts of their weeping, remorse, and sorrow likewise resemble one another.

A khalīfa (successor) is someone who takes another’s place. The word follows the pattern fa‘īla with the meaning of fā‘ila, an active participle. When travelling, the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, would say:

“O Allah, You are the Companion on the journey and the One who takes our place in caring for our families.”

He also said:

“Whoever equips a warrior has himself participated in the campaign, and whoever takes good care of his family in his absence has himself participated in the campaign.”

He also said:

“Is it that whenever we go out on a military expedition, one of them stays behind, bleating like a male goat, giving one of the women a portion of milk? If Allah gives me power over any of them, I will surely make an example of him.”

In the Quran:

“Those who were left behind among the Bedouins will say to you.”

And His words:

“Those who were left behind rejoiced in staying behind Allah’s Messenger.”

What is meant by “successor” is that he succeeded the created beings who came before him. Succession entails a correspondence, just as Abū Bakr al-Siddīq was the successor of Allah’s Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, because he succeeded him in leading his community after his death. Similarly, whenever the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, travelled for Hajj, ‘umrah, or a military expedition, he would appoint someone to take his place in Medina for a specified period. Sometimes he appointed Ibn Umm Maktūm, and sometimes someone else. During the expedition to Tabūk, he appointed ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib to take his place.

The territories over which the ruler appoints deputies are called makhālīf (administrative districts), such as the districts of Yemen and those of the Hijaz. This usage also occurs in the hadith:

“When he went from one district to another.”

Another instance is Allah Most High’s saying:

“And it is He who has made you successors upon the earth and has raised some of you