The “caliphs and commanders” lived in their own homes, just as other Muslims did, but the ruler’s public assembly was held in the congregational mosque.

Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqās had built himself a palace in Kufa and said, “I shall keep the people away from me.” So ʿUmar ibn al-Khattāb sent Muhammad ibn Maslamah to him and ordered him to burn it down. He bought a bundle of firewood from a Nabataean, stipulating that the seller carry it to Saʿd’s palace, and burned it down. ʿUmar disapproved of a governor secluding himself from his subjects. Nevertheless, palaces were built for the commanders.

When Muʿāwiyah came to power, he secluded himself for fear of being assassinated as ʿAlī had been. Screened enclosures were installed in mosques so that the ruler and his entourage could pray within them, and he acquired mounts. The caliphs who ruled as kings followed his example in these practices. Thus, although they commanded armies, led the people in prayer, personally conducted Friday and congregational prayers, waged jihad, and enforced the prescribed punishments, they also had palaces where they lived and received leading figures. Such was “al-Khadrā’” (the Green Palace), which belonged to the Umayyads and stood on the Mecca-facing side of the congregational mosque. The mosques remained gathering places for worship, learning, and similar activities.

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As time passed and the Muslim community became divided, each group clung to one branch of religion, introducing additions of its own while turning away from another branch. Kings and commanders established “citadels and fortresses,” whereas previously fortifications and strongholds had been built only along the frontiers, for fear of