recognized by Islamic law; it is not binding, and breaking it requires no expiation, by scholarly consensus. However, the very act of swearing such an oath is prohibited. It is authentically reported that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said:

“Whoever swears an oath, saying in his oath, ‘By al-Lāt and al-ʿUzzā,’ should say, ‘There is no deity worthy of worship except Allah.’”

Oaths sworn by angels, prophets, or others are all alike in this respect, by scholarly consensus. However, concerning swearing by the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, there are two views within Ahmad’s school. The majority hold that such an oath is not binding and requires no expiation.

As for making an oath to other than Allah, examples include making vows to idols or churches, or swearing an oath involving such a commitment, saying: “If I do such-and-such, I am bound to give such-and-such to the church, or such-and-such to so-and-so’s grave,” and the like.

If this is a vow, it is shirk (associating partners with Allah). If it is an oath, it is shirk when he says it out of reverence, just as a Muslim says: “If I do such-and-such, I am bound to make a sacrificial offering.” But if he says it out of aversion to that, just as a Muslim says, “If I do such-and-such, then I am a Jew or a Christian,” he is not thereby a polytheist. Scholars have two well-known views on whether expiation is incumbent upon him.

Anyone who makes a vow or oath involving shirk must repent to Allah for having made it. Such a commitment is neither to be fulfilled nor expiated; those obligations apply only to commitments made to Allah or oaths sworn by Allah.

As for commitments made to Allah, these take two forms. The first is when a person intends to draw near to Allah, not merely to urge or deter. This is a vow, for it is authentically reported that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said: