and Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al-Shāfi‘ī and others that backgammon is worse than chess. Both views are correct in different respects. If backgammon is played for stakes and chess without stakes, then backgammon is worse, and in that case it is forbidden by consensus. If, however, both are played for stakes, or both without stakes, then chess is worse than backgammon, because it occupies the heart and distracts from the remembrance of Allah and from prayer more than backgammon does.

Hence it has been said: “Chess is based on the doctrine of human free will, while backgammon is based on the doctrine of determinism.” The backgammon player throws the dice and calculates afterwards, whereas the chess player plans, reflects and calculates his moves before making them. Chess therefore corrupts the heart more than backgammon does. Backgammon, however, was known among the Arabs, whereas chess became known only after the Muslim conquests: it originated in India and passed from the Indians to the Persians. This is why backgammon is mentioned in the hadith; otherwise, chess is worse when both are played for stakes or both without stakes. The answer to this question has been set out at length elsewhere. And Allah knows best.

Shaykh al-Islām—may Allah have mercy on him—was asked:

“Concerning a man who plays chess and says that it is better than backgammon: is this correct? Is playing chess forbidden, whether for stakes or without stakes? What do the scholars say about it?”

He replied:

Praise be to Allah. Playing chess is forbidden according to the vast majority of the scholars and imams of the Muslim community, just as backgammon is. It is authentically reported that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said:

“Whoever plays backgammon