Allah without knowledge. They use ambiguous language and deceive ignorant people by confusing them. We therefore seek refuge in Allah from the trials caused by those who lead others astray.”

He then discussed passages of the Quran alleged to contradict one another, until he said:

“Likewise, Jahm and his followers directed people to the ambiguous passages of the Quran and hadith, and led many people astray. Among the accounts that have reached us concerning Jahm, the enemy of Allah, is that he was from Tirmidh in Khurāsān. He was given to disputation and argument, and most of his discussions concerned Allah. He encountered some polytheists called (al-Sumaniyyah). They recognized Jahm and said to him, ‘We will debate with you. If our argument prevails over yours, you will embrace our religion; and if your argument prevails over ours, we will embrace yours.’

“Among the questions they put to Jahm was: ‘Do you not claim that you have a god?’

“Jahm replied, ‘Yes, I do (1).’

“They asked him, ‘Have you seen your god?’

“He replied, ‘No.’

“They asked, ‘Have you heard His speech?’

“He replied, ‘No.’

“They asked, ‘Have you detected any scent from Him?’

“He replied, ‘No.’

“They asked him, ‘Have you perceived Him by touch?’

“He replied, ‘No.’

“They asked, ‘How, then, do you know that He is a god?’

“He continued: Jahm was bewildered and, for forty days, did not know whom he worshipped. Then he came up with an argument like that of the Christian heretics. These Christian heretics claim that the spirit within Jesus is Allah’s spirit, from His very essence. When He wishes to bring something about, He enters one of His creatures and speaks through that creature’s tongue, commanding whatever He wishes and forbidding whatever He wishes, while He is a spirit hidden from sight.

“Jahm then devised a similar argument and said to the Sumani, ‘Do you not claim that there is a spirit within you?’

“He replied, ‘Yes, I do (2).’

“Jahm asked, ‘Have you seen your spirit?’

“He replied, ‘No.’

“Jahm asked, ‘Have you heard