such as the levies imposed upon buyers and sellers of food, clothing, animals, fruit and other goods. These are collected when sales take place, sometimes from sellers and sometimes from buyers. Some of these levies, admittedly, are said to have been imposed on the interpretation that people are obliged to support jihad with their wealth and that jihad requires such funds—as mentioned by the author of Ghiyāth al-Umam (Relief of the Nations) and others—despite the injustice that has entered into this practice and for which scholars recognize no justification.

Other examples include the levies that some kings collect periodically from the inhabitants of their lands, claiming that these are contributions to support their purposes. Likewise, governors sometimes demand payments on an irregular basis: they may be arriving with an army and collecting supplies for their troops, or collecting for some occasion, such as the ruler’s arrival, the birth of a child to him, or something similar. Alternatively, goods may be forced upon people and sold to them for more than their value; these are called “al-hatā’it.”

Another example concerns caravans travelling for pilgrimage, trade or other purposes. Payments are demanded from them according to the number of people or animals, or the amount of their wealth; alternatively, a sum is demanded from them collectively without specifying a basis of assessment. This applies whether the person demanding payment holds authority in a town or village—like those who station themselves at bridges and city gates and collect what they collect—or whether those taking payment are highway robbers, such as the Bedouins, Kurds and Turks who exact tolls from travellers and will not let them pass until they give them what they demand.

Those compelled to pay these sums must observe justice regarding what