and other calamities that prevent full benefit from the crops.

This is made clear by the fact that the intended subject matter of the contract is not merely the lessee’s act of ploughing the land and sowing the seed, such that one could say: “Once he has been able to do that, he has been able to obtain the entire benefit, even if something subsequently ruins the crop and prevents him from benefiting from it.” This is disproved by the case of the water supply being interrupted afterward. Moreover, what is contracted for is the benefit of the land itself, and his benefiting from it is not the same as his own labour. His labour is not itself a benefit to him, nor does he derive benefit from it in itself; rather, it is a burden, toil, and exertion that consumes his energies and wealth. This differs from living in a house or riding an animal: living and riding are themselves ways of benefiting, through which the leased property has benefited him.

Ploughing the land, however, entails toil and exertion, while sowing the seed entails an expenditure of wealth. He does this only in the hope of enjoying the benefit Allah creates in the land by causing plants to grow, as the Most High says:

“Exalted is He who created all pairs—from what the earth produces, from themselves, and from what they do not know.”

He also says:

“With it He causes crops, olives, date palms, and grapes to grow for you.”

And He says:

“And We caused grain to grow in it, and grapes and green fodder, and olives and date palms.”

No one may object that causing the land to produce vegetation lies within the power of neither the lessee nor the lessor, whereas the subject matter of the contract must lie within their power; for this is