betrayed their trusts and then conducted transactions despite this: their transactions would have to be upheld as valid with respect to both those purchasing from them and the owner of the property. Otherwise, invalidating such transactions would undermine dealings in most people’s property administered under legal authority or through agency, since breaches of trust are so prevalent among those entrusted with authority and those acting as agents. This includes, in particular, transactions by rulers that cannot be invalidated.

Islamic law came to secure and perfect benefits, and to avert and reduce harms. No one may, out of concern for an unidentified owner’s right to a particular item—for which something better has been obtained on his behalf—declare his property and that of the purchasers unlawful for them. This would be like demolishing a city to build a palace.

A detailed discussion of this issue and its ramifications belongs elsewhere. More supporting evidence and statements from scholars, the Companions, and the Successors have been cited on this subject than can be accommodated here.