from someone he trusts. If he finds a scholar, he should seek his ruling; otherwise, he and those present should exercise their own judgment.”

Reclaiming uncultivated land is permissible without the ruler’s permission according to al-Shāfiʿī, Ahmad, Abū Yūsuf, and Muhammad. Abū Hanīfa, however, stipulated that the ruler’s permission is required.

Mālik said: “If it is far from settled areas, where people do not compete over it, the ruler’s permission is unnecessary. If it is near settled areas, where people compete over it, his permission is required.”

However, if the land reclaimed is subject to land tax, does reclamation confer ownership without liability for land tax, or does the person hold it while remaining liable for that tax? Scholars hold two opinions on this, both transmitted from Ahmad.

When a fighting man is killed or dies, his wife and young children are provided with stipends. According to Ahmad’s school, one of al-Shāfiʿī’s two opinions, and other scholars, his wife is supported until she remarries, his young daughter until she marries, and his young son until he reaches puberty. The son is then enrolled among the fighting men if he is fit for combat. Otherwise, if he is needy and among those eligible to receive zakat and the surplus of fay’ revenues and public-welfare funds, he is given from these; if not, he receives nothing.