came later, such as the conduct of ʿUthmān and ʿAlī. Innovations are the opposite: the further removed they were from him, the worse they were than those closer to him. The innovation closest to his time was that of the Khawārij. Their innovative teachings were already being voiced during his lifetime, but they did not organize themselves and acquire strength until the caliphate of the Commander of the Faithful, ʿAlī, may Allah be pleased with him.

The doctrine of the Rāfida then began to be voiced during ʿAlī’s time, but its adherents did not organize themselves and acquire strength until after the killing of al-Husayn, may Allah be pleased with him. Indeed, the name Rāfida did not appear until the uprising of Zayd ibn ʿAlī ibn al-Husayn, after the first century AH. When he openly prayed for mercy upon Abū Bakr and ʿUmar, may Allah be pleased with them both, the Rāfida rejected him and were therefore called “Rāfida.” They believed that Abū Jaʿfar was the infallible imam. Others followed Zayd and were called “Zaydiyya” after him.

Then, towards the end of the era of the Companions, the innovative doctrines of the Qadariyya and the Murjiʾa began to emerge. The surviving Companions refuted them, including Ibn ʿUmar, Ibn ʿAbbās, Jābir ibn ʿAbd Allāh, Abū Saʿīd, Wāthila ibn al-Asqaʿ and others. Their adherents did not acquire authority or become an organized body until the Muʿtazila and the Murjiʾa subsequently grew in number.

Then, towards the end of the era of the Successors, the innovative doctrine of the Jahmiyya, who deny the divine attributes, began to be voiced. They did not become an organized body or acquire authority until after the second century AH, during the rule of Abū al-ʿAbbās, known as al-Maʾmūn. He openly espoused Jahmī doctrine, subjected people to an inquisition over it, and translated into Arabic the books of