Allah’s witnesses on earth.” Yet “there was a woman in his time who openly engaged in immorality, and he said: ‘If I were to stone anyone without evidence, I would stone this woman.’”

Thus, prescribed punishments are not carried out without evidence. As for exercising caution regarding a man’s testimony, trustworthiness, and similar matters, this does not require eyewitness knowledge. Widespread reports suffice, as does information falling short of that. Indeed, a person’s character may be inferred from his associates, as Ibn Masʿūd said:

“Judge people by their close companions.”

This is to ward off his harm, just as one takes precautions against an enemy. ʿUmar ibn al-Khattāb, may Allah be pleased with him, said:

“Guard yourselves against people by being suspicious.”

This was ʿUmar’s instruction, even though it is impermissible to punish a Muslim on the basis of suspicion.

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As for penalties and rights pertaining to a specific individual, these include matters concerning human life. Allah Most High says:

“Say, ‘Come, I will recite what your Lord has forbidden to you: do not associate anything with Him; be good to your parents; do not kill your children out of poverty—We provide for you and for them; do not approach shameful deeds, whether open or secret; and do not take a life which Allah has made sacred, except by right. This is what He has commanded you, so that you may understand.’”

“And do not approach