for ceasing to act upon certain texts, other than the notion that his own school’s position of not acting upon them constitutes consensus, and that consensus is evidence of abrogation. There is no doubt that, if consensus is established, it indicates that the text has been abrogated, for the Muslim community does not agree upon error. Yet no consensus to cease acting upon a text is known without the abrogating text also being known. Thus, when the claims of those who allege that texts have been abrogated on the basis of a supposed consensus are closely examined, the consensus they claim usually proves unfounded. At most, they are unaware of any disagreement. Indeed, in some such cases, most scholars hold a position contrary to that of their fellow adherents, but they themselves are unfamiliar with the scholars’ views.

Furthermore, the obligations prescribed by Islamic law that constitute rights owed to Allah fall into three categories: acts of worship, such as prayer, zakat and fasting; punishments, whether prescribed or discretionary; and expiations. Each category of obligations is further divided into those involving the body, those involving wealth, and those combining both.

Acts of worship involving the body include prayer and fasting; those involving wealth include zakat; and those combining both include Hajj.

Expiations involving wealth include feeding others; those involving the body include fasting; and those combining both include offering and slaughtering a sacrificial animal.

Corporal punishments include execution and amputation; financial punishments include destroying wine vessels.