concerning the Messiah, peace be upon him, and as the extremists do concerning 'Alī, may Allah be pleased with him, and others like him. Some hold this concerning various shaykhs, others concerning certain kings, and others concerning certain beautiful forms, along with other doctrines worse than the Christians’ teaching.

Another “group” makes this universal, affirming His indwelling or union in all existing things—even dogs, pigs, impure substances, and the like. This is maintained by some of the Jahmiyyah and their followers among the advocates of union, such as the followers of Ibn 'Arabī, Ibn Sab'īn, Ibn al-Fārid, al-Tilmisānī, al-Balyānī, and others.

The doctrine of all the messengers and their followers among the believers and the People of the Scriptures is that Allah, glorified be He, is the Creator of all worlds, the Lord of the heavens, the earth, and everything between them, and the Lord of the mighty Throne. All created beings are His servants and stand in need of Him. He, glorified be He, is above His heavens, over His Throne, distinct from His creation. Yet He is with them wherever they are, as He, glorified and exalted be He, says:

“He is the One who created the heavens and the earth in six days, then rose over the Throne. He knows what enters the earth and what emerges from it, what descends from heaven and what ascends into it. He is with you wherever you are, and Allah sees all that you do.”

These “misguided disbelievers” claim to see their Lord with their own eyes. One of them may even claim to have sat with Him and conversed with Him, or lain beside Him. Sometimes one of them identifies a human being—whether a particular individual;