general intention, which encompasses all forms of worship. Likewise, when he intends to bow and prostrate during prayer, he maintains the continuing effect of his intention to perform the noon or afternoon prayer, which encompasses all the acts of that prayer. Then, if he does something that negates his awareness of that intention, he invalidates it, thereby revoking it, just as if he revoked his intention to pray during the prayer itself. Thus, if he stands to pray to avoid being beaten or having his property seized, or pays zakat to avoid being beaten, he has revoked that intention arising from faith.

For this reason, the correct view in our school and among most scholars is that such worship is invalid: an act performed with this intention does not discharge the obligation. We have also held that obligatory acts of worship performed for show are invalid, and that when the ruler takes zakat from someone who refuses to pay it, this does not discharge that person’s obligation inwardly, according to the sounder of the two views.

However, most Muslims are born to Muslim parents and thus acquire Muslim status by legal judgment, without themselves having actual faith. When they reach maturity, some are granted actual faith and fulfil their obligations, while others do what they do purely out of habit and in imitation of their relatives, the people of their town, and the like. For example, someone may pay zakat because it is customary for the ruler to collect levies, without any awareness, either general or detailed, that zakat is obligatory upon him. To him, there is no difference between newly instituted levies and the zakat prescribed by the religion. Another example is a resident of Mecca who goes out to Arafāt every year because that is the prevailing custom, without any awareness, either general or detailed, that this is an act of worship devoted to Allah; or someone who fights the disbelievers