to pray two units of prayer, just as he is commanded to pray with dry ablution. If he lacks water on an unlawful journey, he must perform dry ablution and pray. Any units beyond the two are neither an act of obedience nor something any traveller is commanded to perform. If a traveller performs them, he has done something forbidden. Praying two units is thus like a traveller’s performing the Friday prayer behind a settled resident: would he pray anything other than two units, even if his journey is sinful, and even if he would pray four when praying alone?

Likewise, his fasting while travelling is neither an act of righteousness nor something he is commanded to do, for it is authentically reported that the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said:

“Fasting while travelling is not an act of righteousness.”

His fasting while resident is more beloved to Allah than his fasting on an unlawful journey. If he wished to offer voluntary prayers on his mount during an unlawful journey, he would not be prevented from doing so. If he were unsure of the direction of prayer, would he not determine it as best he could and pray? If his clothes were taken away, would he not pray naked?

If it is said that he can do nothing else in these cases, the answer is that the traveller, likewise, has only been commanded to pray two units, and what is prescribed for him is not to fast. Scholars have differed over whether fasting would discharge his obligation, whereas they agree that fasting after Ramadan would discharge it.

There is no precautionary course in this matter. One group holds that if someone prays four units or fasts during Ramadan on an unlawful journey, this does not discharge his obligation—just as, in their view, it would not do so on a permissible journey. Another group holds that only praying four units and fasting during Ramadan will discharge his obligations. Likewise,