agree that one of them is a Sunnah, while differing over whether it is obligatory, whereas they dispute the permissibility of the other. How, then, can the two be equated?

The school that allows the greatest latitude in combining two prayers is that of Imām Ahmad. He explicitly stated that combining prayers is permissible because of hardship or other commitments, citing a hadith reported concerning this.

Al-Qādī Abū Ya‘lā and other scholars of our school explained: “This means that if someone has a commitment that permits him to miss the Friday prayer and congregational prayer, he may combine prayers.”

According to Ahmad, Mālik, and a group of scholars from al-Shāfi‘ī’s school, combining prayers is permissible because of illness. All three permit combining Maghrib and Isha because of rain, but they disagree concerning the two daytime prayers. According to the apparent position of Ahmad’s and Mālik’s schools, combining prayers is permissible because of mud, strong cold winds, and similar conditions. A nursing mother may also combine prayers if washing her garment at the time of every prayer causes her hardship. Ahmad explicitly stated this.

The scholars also differed over whether combining and shortening prayers require an intention to do so. The majority held that no such intention is required. This is the position of Mālik and Abū Hanīfah, and one of the two positions within Ahmad’s school; it is also what his explicit statements and underlying principles indicate.

Al-Shāfi‘ī and a group of scholars from Ahmad’s school held that an intention is required. The majority’s position, however, is the one supported by the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him), as has been explained at length in the appropriate place. And Allah knows best.