The first view: Neither combining nor shortening prayers is permitted.

The second: Combining prayers is permitted, but not shortening them.

The third: A resident of Mecca is permitted to combine prayers specifically at ‘Arafah and Muzdalifah, even though his journey is short.

The fourth: Both combining and shortening prayers are permitted at ‘Arafah and Muzdalifah.

The fifth: Both are permitted without restriction.

As for someone who combines prayers on account of travel, may he combine them without restriction, or only when travelling? There are two reports from Ahmad on this—whether resident or travelling. Hence, Ahmad explicitly stated that a person may combine prayers when he has something to attend to. Judge Abū Ya‘lā stated that every excuse permitting absence from Friday prayer and congregational prayer also permits combining prayers. Thus, prayers may be combined because of rain, mud, or a strong, cold wind, according to the apparent position of Imam Ahmad’s school. A sick person, a woman experiencing non-menstrual bleeding, and a nursing mother may also combine prayers.

When a traveller presses on with his journey, he may combine prayers, whether his journey is long or short, as established by the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him). People combine prayers at ‘Arafah and Muzdalifah, whether they are residents of Mecca or not, although the residents of Mecca make only a short journey. Likewise, the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) and his Rightly Guided Caliphs combined prayers at ‘Arafah and Muzdalifah. Whenever they shortened their prayers, those praying behind them, whether residents of Mecca or not, would also shorten theirs. The distance from Mecca to ‘Arafah is