and subjected them to tests, punished them if they refused to comply, and declared those who refused to comply unbelievers. They even went so far as to withhold a captive’s release until he professed the Jahmiyyah’s doctrine that the Quran is created, and their other beliefs. They would neither appoint anyone to office nor grant anyone a stipend from the public treasury unless he professed these beliefs. Despite this, Imam Ahmad—may Allah Most High have mercy on him—prayed for mercy and forgiveness for them, knowing that it had not been made clear to them that they were denying the Messenger or rejecting what he had brought. Rather, they had interpreted it incorrectly and followed those who taught them these doctrines.

Likewise, when Hafs al-Fard said, “The Quran is created,” al-Shāfi‘ī told him, “You have disbelieved in Allah the Almighty.” He explained to him that this statement constituted unbelief, but did not judge Hafs an apostate merely on that account, because the proof on which such a judgment would rest had not become clear to Hafs. Had he considered him an apostate, he would have sought his execution. Moreover, he explicitly stated in his books that the testimony of adherents of religious innovation is admissible and that prayer behind them is valid.

Similarly, Mālik—may Allah have mercy on him—al-Shāfi‘ī, and Ahmad said concerning an adherent of the Qadariyyah: “If he denies Allah’s knowledge, he is an unbeliever.” Some of them expressed it as follows: “Debate the Qadariyyah on the basis of Allah’s knowledge: if they acknowledge it, they are defeated in argument; if they deny it, they are unbelievers.”

Ahmad was asked whether an adherent of the Qadariyyah becomes an unbeliever. He replied, “If he denies Allah’s knowledge, he becomes an unbeliever.” In that case, one who denies Allah’s knowledge belongs to the same category as the Jahmiyyah. As for executing one who calls to