the ship he is aboard, or because highwaymen have stripped him of his clothes—he must pray unclothed within the appointed time. Likewise, the scholars agree that a traveler who has no water must perform dry ablution and pray within the appointed time, even if water will be available after that time has passed. Similarly, a traveler in a state of major ritual impurity who has no water must perform dry ablution and pray. The four imams and others agree that he need not repeat the prayer.

Likewise, if the cold is severe and he fears that bathing would make him ill, he must perform dry ablution and pray within the appointed time, rather than delay the prayer until after its time so that he can pray after bathing. The Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said:

“Clean earth is a means of purification for a Muslim, even if he finds no water for ten years. But when you find water, let it touch your skin, for that is better.”

Everything permitted through purification with water is also permitted through dry ablution. Thus, if someone performs dry ablution for an obligatory prayer, he may recite the Quran both within and outside the prayer, even if he is in a state of major ritual impurity. Whoever refuses to pray with dry ablution is of the same kind as the Jews and Christians, for dry ablution is exclusive to the community of Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. As the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said in an authentic hadith:

“We have been favored over other people in three ways: our ranks have been made like the ranks of the angels; the earth has been made a place of prayer for me, and its soil a means of purification; and the spoils of war have been made lawful for me, though they were not lawful for anyone before me.”

Another wording states:

“The earth has been made a place of prayer and a means of purification for me. Thus, wherever a man of my community finds himself when prayer is due, he has his place of prayer and his means of purification at hand.”

The scholars have differed over whether dry ablution may be performed before the prayer’s time begins, whether it must be performed for each prayer, and whether it becomes invalid when the prayer’s time ends; or whether one may pray as many prayers as one wishes, just as one does after purification with water