body in removing a particular disease. Moreover, identifying and knowing that particular kind of medicine eludes most people—indeed, people generally. Even an intelligent and discerning specialist who practises this art may devote much of his life to acquiring such knowledge, yet still fail to recognize the kind of illness and its true nature, or to identify its medicine and cure. The means of removing illness thus differ from the means of relieving starvation in these clear respects and others. Accordingly, their rulings also differ, as we have explained.

This makes clear the answer to the analogies mentioned above. A general account of what is waived and what is permitted on grounds of need and necessity, insofar as it occurs to me now, is as follows.

As for the waiving of such obligations as standing in prayer, fasting, and ritual bathing, the benefit of doing so is certain, unlike medical treatment. Moreover, omitting what is commanded is less serious than doing what is forbidden. The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said:

“When I forbid you something, avoid it; and when I command you to do something, do as much of it as you can.”

Consider how he required avoidance of everything forbidden, while distinguishing, with regard to what is commanded, between what one can and cannot do. This almost constitutes an independent proof concerning the issue.

Furthermore, obligations such as standing in prayer, attending Friday prayer, and performing Hajj are waived on account of kinds of hardship that do not justify permitting anything prohibited. This becomes clear upon reflection.