Among the disputed cases, then, are those of someone who has no water while not travelling, and someone who performs tayammum for fear of the cold. The same applies to anyone else who omits an obligatory act because of an uncommon excuse that does not persist. According to al-Shāfi‘ī and one of the two reports from Ahmad, such a person must repeat the prayer. According to Mālik, most scholars, and the other report from Ahmad, he need not repeat it. If someone lets the prayer’s prescribed time expire by delaying a night prayer until daytime, or a daytime prayer until night, he thereby sins.

As the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said in an authentic hadith:

“Whoever misses the ‘Asr prayer, it is as though he has been deprived of his family and wealth.”

Some scholars have permitted delaying prayer in certain circumstances, such as during sword combat. This is the view of Abū Hanīfah and one of the two reports from Ahmad. Most scholars, however, hold that prayer may not be delayed beyond its prescribed time under any circumstances. This is the view of Mālik, al-Shāfi‘ī, and Ahmad according to the apparent position of his school. Nevertheless, most scholars permit combining two prayers for a valid excuse, just as the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) combined Zuhr and ‘Asr at ‘Arafah, and Maghrib and ‘Ishā’ at Muzdalifah. Combining prayers at these two places is established by mass-transmitted reports of the Sunnah and scholarly consensus.

Authentic reports also establish that the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) would combine prayers when pressing on with his journey, and that in Medina he prayed eight rak‘ahs together—Zuhr and ‘Asr—and seven—Maghrib and ‘Ishā’. His purpose was to spare his community hardship, in accordance with the words of Allah Most High:

“He has placed no hardship upon you in religion.”