he is ill or on a journey and cannot find water. Dry ablution is a concession, so one might suppose that it is permitted only for less severe forms of minor and major ritual impurity, such as those caused by passing wind and wet dreams, rather than defecation and intercourse. People regard performing dry ablution and praying in the latter circumstances as a daunting matter and shrink from it. Indeed, some of the foremost Companions rejected dry ablution altogether for someone in a state of major ritual impurity.

Many people are reluctant to pray with dry ablution when they are ritually impure, for making earth a means of purification like water is one of the special favors Allah has bestowed upon Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and his community. Those whose faith is not firmly established do not consider this permissible. Allah, glorified is He, therefore made clear that dry ablution is prescribed even when minor ritual impurity is aggravated by defecation and major ritual impurity by intercourse.

The sense is: “If you are ill or travelling, or if—in addition to that—one of you has returned from relieving himself or you have had intercourse with women.” The intention is not to treat defecation and intercourse as cases unaccompanied by illness or travel. For He has already addressed the case of those who have relieved themselves or had intercourse with women, while neither ill nor travelling, in His words:

“When you rise for prayer, wash your faces,”

and His words:

“If you are in a state of major ritual impurity, then purify yourselves.”

Thus, the verse indicates that ablution and a full ritual bath are obligatory for the healthy and the non-traveller.

Furthermore, He may have singled out defecation and intercourse because a person might not perform dry ablution in such circumstances, although he would for something less severe, such as passing wind and