the Prophet (may Allah bless him and grant him peace), who removed his sandals during prayer because of the filth on them without restarting the prayer; and who, after offering the dawn prayer and finding impurity on his garment, ordered it to be washed off without repeating the prayer.

According to the other reported position, the prayer must be repeated, as Abū Hanīfa and al-Shāfiʿī hold.

Another principle concerns removing impurity. Abū Hanīfa’s position is that it may be removed with any liquid or solid substance capable of removing it. Al-Shāfiʿī holds that it can only be removed with water. Even impurity affecting the soles of leather socks or shoes, or the hem of a garment, must be washed off with water; the same applies to impurity on the ground.

Ahmad’s position takes a middle course: he accepts everything established by the Sunnah. According to the sound position reported from him, impurity may be wiped off sandals and similar footwear using earth or the like, as established by the Sunnah. Likewise, it may be wiped from the urinary and anal outlets. In terms of their repeated exposure to impurity, these two outlets stand in relation to the other parts of the body as the soles of leather socks stand in relation to other clothing.

His followers differed concerning the underside of a garment’s hem: is it like the sole of a leather sock? This is indicated by the Sunnah, with the two alike in relation to the transmitted report on this matter. As for analogy: removing impurity from the ground by sunlight and wind . . . (1)

A middle course must be followed in this matter. For strictness concerning both the kinds and amounts of impurity is the religion of the Jews, whereas laxity