for those who fear Me and give zakah, and those who believe in Our signs.”

“Those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered Prophet, whom they find described in the Torah and the Gospel they possess. He enjoins upon them what is right and forbids them what is wrong, makes good things lawful for them and forbids them foul things, and relieves them of their burden and the shackles that were upon them.”

Allah Most High has thus made good things lawful for us and forbidden us foul things. Foul things are of two kinds: those that are inherently foul because of some quality within them, such as blood, carrion, and pork; and those whose foulness arises from how they are acquired, such as property taken unjustly or through an unlawful transaction involving usury or gambling.

Regarding the first kind, anything with which contact is forbidden, such as ritually impure substances, is forbidden to consume. Yet not everything forbidden to consume is forbidden to come into contact with, as in the case of poisons. Allah has forbidden us certain foods and drinks, and certain kinds of clothing.

It is well known that the position of the scholars of Medina concerning drinks is stricter than that of the Kufans. The scholars of Medina, those of the other cities, and the jurists versed in hadith prohibit every intoxicant. They hold that every intoxicant is wine and is forbidden, and that whatever intoxicates in large quantities is forbidden even in small quantities. None of the scholars of Medina, early or late, disputed this, whether the drink is made from fruit, grain, honey, mares’ milk, or anything else.

The Kufans, however, recognize as wine only grape juice that has fermented to an intoxicating strength. If it is cooked before reaching that stage until two-thirds of it has evaporated, it is lawful. Drinks made from dates or raisins are forbidden if they are intoxicating and uncooked; but if cooked even slightly, they are lawful even if they intoxicate. As for all other such drinks,