they maintain it at their own expense, and that the seed would be provided by them rather than by the Prophet ﷺ. For this reason, the sounder of the two scholarly opinions is that the seed must be supplied by the cultivator.1
What the Prophet ﷺ forbade of mukhābarah and of renting land has been clarified: people used to stipulate that the landowner receive the harvest of a specific plot, and such a condition is invalid by explicit text and by the consensus of the scholars.2 The case is identical to a capital owner in a muḍārabah stipulating a fixed sum of money for himself—something unanimously forbidden—because these transactions are founded on fairness and belong to the category of partnerships. In a partnership each party owns an undivided share, a third, a half, and the like; but allocating a fixed amount to one of them is inequity and therefore injustice.
A group of scholars supposed that these arrangements were a kind of lease in which part of the consideration is unknown; they therefore held that analogy demands prohibiting them. Some of that group banned musāqāh (orchard-irrigation partnership) and muzāraʿah (share-cropping) yet allowed muḍārabah, treating it as a concession born of need, on the grounds that coins cannot themselves be leased, as maintained by Abū Ḥanīfah. Others permitted musāqāh without restriction, as is the view of Mālik and al-Shāfiʿī’s earlier position, or confined it to date-palms and grapes, as in al-Shāfiʿī’s later view, arguing that trees cannot be leased whereas land can. They then allowed the share-cropping required as an adjunct to musāqāh, so al-Shāfiʿī permits muzāraʿah when the land is the lesser element, and Mālik when it is capped at one-third.
The majority of the early scholars and the jurists of the major cities, however, held that this is a form of partnership, not a hire contract whose objective is labor alone. Each party seeks the resulting fruit or crop, and the two are partners—one by his effort, the other by his capital—exactly like muḍārabah. Accordingly, the sounder of the two scholarly views is that if such partnerships are invalid, what becomes due is a proportional share, not the wage-equivalent.3 Thus, from the profit or the produce, one receives either a third or a half, in accordance with customary practice in