whereupon he said, “You have spoken the truth.” We were astonished that he should endorse the Messenger of Allah ﷺ—especially since the Bedouins were generally unlettered.

Then he asked, “O Messenger of Allah, what are the ordinances of Islam?” He ﷺ replied, “Establishing the prayer, paying the zakat, fasting in Ramadan, making pilgrimage to the House for anyone who is able to find a way thereto, and performing the ritual bath after a state of major impurity.”

Again he said, “You have spoken the truth,” and we were amazed at his affirming the Prophet ﷺ, as though he were instructing him.

He then asked, “O Messenger of Allah, what is iḥsān—spiritual excellence?”