Report (khabar) and narration (hadith)

In common usage the two terms khabar and hadith are interchangeable. Some scholars, however, confine the word hadith to what is transmitted from the Prophet ﷺ, his Companions, and the Successors, and reserve khabar for accounts dealing with kings, rulers, and events of earlier times. Hence, one who specialises in the Sunnah is called a muḥaddith, whereas a student of historical chronicles is known as an akhbārī.

Attribution to the Prophet (rafʿ) is of two types: explicit (ṣarīḥ) and implicit (ḥukmī). Thus a report may be raised to the Prophet either plainly or by implication.

1. Explicit verbal attribution: this is exemplified when a Companion says, “I heard the Messenger of Allah ﷺ say such-and-such,” or when he—or anyone else—states, “The Messenger of Allah ﷺ said…,” or, “From the Messenger of Allah ﷺ: he said….”

2. Explicit action-based attribution: this occurs when a Companion says, “I saw the Messenger of Allah ﷺ do such-and-such,” or, “It is from the Messenger of Allah ﷺ that he did such-and-such,” or when the Companion, or another narrator, declares concerning the report, “It is marfūʿ,” or, “He raised it—that he did such-and-such.”

3. Explicit tacit approval: this is when a Companion, or someone else, states, “So-and-so did…,” or someone