and those who differ about it are surely in doubt; they possess no certain knowledge of it, but only follow conjecture, and for a surety they did not kill him (157). On the contrary, God raised him up to Himself, and God is Almighty, All-Wise. (158) [Qur’an 4:156-158]

Exegetes have disagreed over the meaning of His words, “but it was made to appear to them.” One view holds that the matter was made to appear to the actual crucifiers: the likeness of Jesus was cast upon another person, and they crucified that likeness instead. Another view (1) is that the confusion befell the Christians—that is, the affair became ambiguous to them, and they had no knowledge that he had neither been killed nor crucified. When his enemies claimed they had done so, and this coincided with his being raised from the earth, the doubt settled in their minds. The Christians then accepted the claim of crucifixion, and thus the full disgrace befell them. In any case, the Messiah—may God’s blessings and peace be upon him—was most certainly neither killed nor crucified; of that there is absolutely no doubt.

After his ascension, the disciples spread throughout the lands, holding fast to his religion and his way. They called the nations to God’s oneness and His religion, and to belief in His servant, His Messenger, and His Messiah. Many people embraced that faith—some openly and renowned, others secretly and concealed. Meanwhile the enemies of God—the Jews—were exceedingly harsh (2) and injurious toward his companions and followers. The disciples and other followers of the Messiah suffered grievously at the hands of both the Jews and the Romans: killings, torture, displacement, imprisonment, and more. In the time of the Messiah the Jews lived under Roman sovereignty—the Romans were their rulers. The king’s deputy in Jerusalem wrote to the monarch, informing him about the Messiah and his disciples and about the many wonders he performed—curing the born-blind and the leper, and bringing the dead to life. The king inclined to believe in him and to adopt his religion, but his courtiers would not follow him. He subsequently died, and another king succeeded him, who was harsh toward