and 1912. All of these impressions included, in addition to al-Hāshimī’s epistle, al-Kindī’s letter to al-Hāshimī, in which he refutes him and invites him to Christianity. We know the authors’ names only from what al-Bīrūnī records in al-Āthār al-bāqiyah, namely: ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ismāʿīl al-Hāshimī and ʿAbd al-Masīḥ ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī.

2 – al-Dīn wa-al-Dawla fī Ithbāt Nubuwwat al-Nabī Muḥammad ﷺ (Religion and the State in Proof of the Prophethood of Muhammad) by ʿAlī ibn Rabban al-Ṭabarī (d. after 1855 AH). He was Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn Sahl ibn Rabban al-Ṭabarī, who embraced Islam at the hands of the Caliph al-Muʿtaṣim. This is the earliest work that has reached us on Muslim-Christian polemics authored by a Nestorian Christian who became Muslim. It was first printed in 1322 AH at the Muqtataf Press in Egypt, then issued in Tunis as a photo-reproduction of a European edition. A further edition, edited by ʿĀdil Nuwayhiḍ, appeared in Beirut in 1393 AH, and it has been reprinted several times since.

3 – al-Radd ʿalā al-Naṣārā (Refutation of the Christians) by Tarjumān al-Dīn al-Qāsim ibn Ibrāhīm al-Ḥasanī al-Rassī (d. around 246 AH), founder of the Qāsimiyya school of jurisprudence and a pillar of the Zaydī Shīʿī tradition. This refutation was published in the Rivista degli Studi Orientali in Rome in 1921, edited by A. De Mito, who also produced an Italian translation.

4 – Maqālah fī al-Radd ʿalā al-Naṣārā (A Treatise Refuting the Christians) by Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī (d. 252 AH). Only excerpts survive, preserved by Yaḥyā ibn ʿAdī in order to rebut them. A. Perini published these fragments in 1920 in the Journal of the Christian Orient on four pages.

5 – al-Radd ʿalā al-Naṣārā (Refutation of the Christians) by al-Jāḥiẓ, Abū ʿUthmān ʿAmr ibn Baḥr (d. 255 AH). Joshua Finkel published the essay within Three Epistles of al-Jāḥiẓ, Cairo, 1328 AH; it was reprinted in 1332 AH, and ʿAbd al-Salām also issued an edition.