in favor of ritual purity, because it retains and gathers the blood, whereas menstruation releases and discharges it.

The overall ruling concerning waiting periods is as follows: if a woman is pregnant, her waiting period ends upon delivery, whether the separation from her husband occurred through divorce or death, as Allah Most High says: “As for pregnant women, their term is until they deliver their burden” (al-Talaq 65:4).

If she is not pregnant, a distinction must be made. If the separation resulted from the husband’s death, she must observe a waiting period of four months and ten days, whether he died before or after the marriage was consummated, and whether she is a woman who menstruates or one who does not, for Allah Most High says: “Those among you who die leaving wives behind: they shall wait by themselves for four months and ten days” (al-Baqarah 2:234).

If the separation occurred while both spouses were alive, then a distinction must likewise be made. If the divorce took place before consummation, she has no waiting period to observe, for Allah Most High says: “O believers, when you marry believing women and then divorce them before consummating the marriage with them, they have no waiting period for you to count” (al-Ahzab 33:49).

If it took place after consummation, then a distinction must be made. If the woman has never menstruated, or has reached the age at which women cease menstruating, her waiting period is three months, for Allah Most High says: “As for your women who have ceased menstruation—if you are in doubt—their waiting period is three months, as is the case for those who have not menstruated” (al-Talaq 65:4).

If she is a woman who menstruates, her waiting period is three quruʾ, for Allah Most High says: “Divorced women shall wait by themselves for three quruʾ.” The wording “shall wait by themselves” is declarative in form, but its meaning is a command.

If an enslaved woman is pregnant, her waiting period ends upon delivery, just like that of a free woman. If she is not pregnant, her waiting period upon her husband’s death is two months and five nights. In the case of divorce, if she menstruates, her waiting period is two quruʾ; if she does not menstruate, it is a month and a half. It was also said that it is two months, corresponding to the two quruʾ required of one who menstruates. Umar ibn al-Khattab, may Allah be pleased with him, said: “A male slave may marry two women and issue two divorces, and an enslaved woman observes a waiting period of two menstrual cycles. If she does not menstruate, then it is two months or a month and a half.”

As for His saying, “Nor is it lawful for them to conceal what Allah has created in their wombs,” Ikrimah said: This refers to menstruation: a man may wish to take her back, and she says, “I have begun my third menstruation.” Ibn Abbas and Qatadah said: It refers to pregnancy. The meaning of the verse is that it is not lawful for a woman to conceal the menstruation or pregnancy that Allah has created in her womb, thereby invalidating the husband’s rights concerning revocation of the divorce and the child—“if they believe in Allah and the Last Day.” Its meaning is that this is the conduct of believing women, even though believing and disbelieving women are alike in this ruling. It is like saying, “Fulfil my right, if you are a believer,” meaning that fulfilling rights is characteristic of believers.

“Their husbands” means their spouses. Buʿūlah is the plural of baʿl, just as fuḥūlah is the plural of faḥl. A husband is called baʿl because he attends to his wife’s affairs; the original meaning of baʿl is master and owner. “Have a better right to take them back” means that they have greater right to revoke the divorce and take them back during that period, provided that they intend reconciliation and good marital conduct, rather than causing harm, as they used to do in the pre-Islamic period. A man would divorce his wife, and when the end of her waiting period approached, he would take her back. Then he would leave her for a time and divorce her; and when the end of her waiting period approached, he would take her back, then divorce her again after some time, intending thereby to prolong her waiting period. “And women have, against their husbands, the equivalent of