He said, so I replied, “We pass judgment only on the basis of iḥāṭa (comprehensive certainty), or on the strength of a truthful report, or by recourse to qiyās (analogical reasoning). The grounds for each of these differ with us; although we do rule by all of them, some are more firmly established than others.

He asked, “Such as what?”

I said, “I might rule for a man because he himself confesses, or on the basis of witness testimony, or because he refuses to take an oath while his opponent swears. A confession is stronger than testimony, and testimony is stronger than a refusal to swear coupled with the other party’s oath. Even though the judgment we render is the same in every case, the reasons that lead to it are not alike.”

He said, “Once you have resolved to accept their reports—despite all that I have already mentioned about your readiness to do so—what proof do you have against someone who rejects them?”

He went on, “For my part I will accept none of them so long as the possibility of error remains; I accept only that of which I can testify before Allah just as I testify to His Book, concerning which it is impermissible for anyone to doubt even a single letter. Is it right that something should take the place of encompassing certainty when it does not truly confer it?”

I answered, “Whoever knows the language in which the Book of Allah and His rulings were revealed is, by that very knowledge, led to accept the truthful reports transmitted from the Messenger of Allah ﷺ, to distinguish those rulings of Allah that the Messenger himself distinguished, and thereby to recognize the standing of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ—though you yourself never saw him—through reports related by both the select few and the generality.”

He said, “Yes.”

I said, “Then you have rejected them, even while professing what you claim as religion!”

He responded, “Can you show me something of this sort that will decisively establish the obligation to accept the report? If you can, it will make your argument clearer, render the proof firmer against anyone who disagrees with you, and bring greater ease to the soul of one who leaves his own view for yours.”

I said, “If you will take the path of fairness, then in some of what I have already said there is proof…"