172 – I replied, “The knowledge possessed by the general public is exactly as you have described: you will not meet any Muslim without finding that this knowledge rests with him, nor will any one of them dispute with another about it—such as the principal obligations, the number of units in each prayer, and similar matters.”

173 – “As for the knowledge of the specialists—that of the first generation and the Successors after them, down to the scholars I have encountered—their statements diverge markedly in matters for which there is no explicit text from the Book; they give interpretive readings, and when they do not adopt analogical reasoning (qiyās), the very nature of qiyās allows for disagreement. When they differ, the least that each opponent says of the other is that he is in error; the other sees him in the same light. This is not the status of the first category.”

174 – “Moreover, whenever a ruling is produced by analogy—and analogy is susceptible to error—then, according to your own principle, qiyās can never constitute exhaustive knowledge, nor can one testify in its entirety on Allah’s behalf, as you alleged.”

175 – “I also pointed out other corollaries that, in my view, follow inevitably from his position.”

176 – At this, one of those present remarked, “Leave that issue aside for now. In our estimation, much of what you have charged him with does indeed follow, though not all of it. I shall now relate something different from what he said.”

177 – I said, “Then state it.”

178 – He replied, “Knowledge has various forms. One of them is what has been transmitted by the common people, generation after generation; concerning this I can bear witness before Allah and His Messenger—for example, the overall obligations (farāʾiḍ).”

179 – I said, “That is the foremost type of knowledge, about which no one will dispute with you.”

180 – “Another form is a scriptural text that admits interpretation. When people differ about such a text, it remains upon its outward, general meaning and is never shifted to an inner meaning—even though it might bear that—except by the unanimous agreement of the people; if they break ranks, the text stays upon its outward sense.”

181 – He continued, “A further category is that upon which the Muslims have united and which they have reported from those before them….”