the religion is an innovation, and every innovation is a misguidance that must be rejected. This means that innovations, whether in acts of worship or matters of belief, are forbidden, though the gravity of the prohibition differs according to the nature of the innovation itself.

• Some innovations are sheer disbelief, such as circumambulating graves in devotion to their occupants, offering sacrifices or vows to them, invoking the dead, and seeking their help—along with the doctrines propounded by the extremist Jahmites and Muʿtazilites.

• Others are pathways that lead to polytheism, like erecting structures over graves or performing prayer and supplication at them.

• Some count as doctrinal transgression, for instance the innovations of the Khārijites, Qadarites, and Murjiʾites in their statements and beliefs that contravene the scriptural proofs.

• Still others are plain acts of disobedience, such as the innovations of perpetual celibacy, fasting while standing in the sun, or castrating oneself to quell sexual desire. (1)